Of All the Inspirations for Romantic Art None Was More Important Than

Western cultural movement inspired past ancient Greece and Rome

Neoclassicism (as well spelled Neo-classicism; from Greek νέος nèos, "new" and Greek κλασικός klasikόs, "of the highest rank")^[i] was a Western cultural motion in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the fine art and civilization of classical antiquity. Neoclassicism was born in Rome largely thanks to the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, at the time of the rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum, merely its popularity spread all over Europe every bit a generation of European art students finished their Grand Bout and returned from Italian republic to their home countries with newly rediscovered Greco-Roman ethics.^[2] ^[three] The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th and up to the 21st century.

European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c. 1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Rococo manner. Rococo architecture emphasizes grace, ornament and asymmetry; Neoclassical compages is based on the principles of simplicity and symmetry, which were seen as virtues of the arts of Rome and Ancient Greece, and were more immediately drawn from 16th-century Renaissance Classicism. Each "neo"-classicism selects some models among the range of possible classics that are available to it, and ignores others. The Neoclassical writers and talkers, patrons and collectors, artists and sculptors of 1765–1830 paid homage to an idea of the generation of Phidias, but the sculpture examples they really embraced were more than likely to be Roman copies of Hellenistic sculptures. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Belatedly Antiquity. The "Rococo" art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Wood's The Ruins of Palmyra. Even Greece was all-just-unvisited, a rough backwater of the Ottoman Empire, dangerous to explore, so Neoclassicists' appreciation of Greek architecture was mediated through drawings and engravings, which subtly smoothed and regularized, "corrected" and "restored" the monuments of Greece, not always consciously.

The Empire style, a 2d stage of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts, had its cultural centre in Paris in the Napoleonic era. Particularly in compages, simply likewise in other fields, Neoclassicism remained a force long after the early 19th century, with periodic waves of revivalism into the 20th and even the 21st centuries, especially in the Usa and Russia.

History [edit]

Neoclassicism is a revival of the many styles and spirit of archetype antiquity inspired directly from the classical period,^[four] which coincided and reflected the developments in philosophy and other areas of the Age of Enlightenment, and was initially a reaction against the excesses of the preceding Rococo style.^[5] While the movement is often described as the opposed analogue of Romanticism, this is a great over-simplification that tends non to be sustainable when specific artists or works are considered. The case of the supposed primary champion of tardily Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well.^[6] The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology.^[7] ^[eight]

The writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. His books Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1750) and Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("History of Ancient Art", 1764) were the get-go to distinguish sharply between Ancient Greek and Roman art, and ascertain periods within Greek fine art, tracing a trajectory from growth to maturity and and so imitation or decadence that continues to take influence to the present solar day. Winckelmann believed that art should aim at "noble simplicity and calm grandeur",^[10] and praised the idealism of Greek art, in which he said we find "not merely nature at its most cute but likewise something beyond nature, namely sure platonic forms of its beauty, which, as an aboriginal interpreter of Plato teaches us, come from images created by the mind alone". The theory was very far from new in Western art, but his emphasis on shut copying of Greek models was: "The only style for us to get slap-up or if this be possible, inimitable, is to imitate the ancients".^[eleven]

With the advent of the Thou Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe.^[12] "Neoclassicism" in each art implies a particular catechism of a "classical" model.

In English language, the term "Neoclassicism" is used primarily of the visual arts; the similar move in English literature, which began considerably before, is chosen Augustan literature. This, which had been dominant for several decades, was beginning to reject by the fourth dimension Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was like. In music, the catamenia saw the rise of classical music, and "Neoclassicism" is used of 20th-century developments. However, the operas of Christoph Willibald Gluck represented a specifically Neoclassical approach, spelt out in his preface to the published score of Alceste (1769), which aimed to reform opera by removing ornamentation, increasing the office of the chorus in line with Greek tragedy, and using simpler unadorned melodic lines.^[13]

The term "Neoclassical" was non invented until the mid-19th century, and at the time the style was described by such terms equally "the true style", "reformed" and "revival"; what was regarded every bit beingness revived varying considerably. Ancient models were certainly very much involved, only the manner could also exist regarded as a revival of the Renaissance, and especially in France as a return to the more austere and noble Baroque of the age of Louis 14, for which a considerable nostalgia had developed as France'due south dominant military and political position started a serious decline.^[fourteen] Ingres's coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, to the disapproval of critics.

Neoclassicism was strongest in architecture, sculpture and the decorative arts, where classical models in the same medium were relatively numerous and accessible; examples from ancient painting that demonstrated the qualities that Winckelmann'southward writing establish in sculpture were and are lacking. Winckelmann was involved in the broadcasting of knowledge of the starting time large Roman paintings to exist discovered, at Pompeii and Herculaneum and, like most contemporaries except for Gavin Hamilton, was unimpressed by them, citing Pliny the Younger's comments on the refuse of painting in his flow.^[xv]

As for painting, Greek painting was utterly lost: Neoclassicist painters imaginatively revived it, partly through bas-relief friezes, mosaics and pottery painting, and partly through the examples of painting and ornament of the Loftier Renaissance of Raphael's generation, frescos in Nero's Domus Aurea, Pompeii and Herculaneum, and through renewed admiration of Nicolas Poussin. Much "Neoclassical" painting is more classicizing in subject thing than in annihilation else. A vehement, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the relative claim of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann and his fellow Hellenists mostly being on the winning side.^[sixteen]

Painting and printmaking [edit]

It is difficult to recapture the radical and heady nature of early Neoclassical painting for contemporary audiences; it now strikes even those writers favourably inclined to it as "insipid" and "almost entirely uninteresting to us"—some of Kenneth Clark's comments on Anton Raphael Mengs' ambitious Parnassus at the Villa Albani,^[17] by the artist whom his friend Winckelmann described as "the greatest artist of his own, and perhaps of later times".^[eighteen] The drawings, subsequently turned into prints, of John Flaxman used very simple line drawing (idea to exist the purest classical medium^[19]) and figures generally in profile to depict The Odyssey and other subjects, and once "fired the artistic youth of Europe" only are now "neglected",^[20] while the history paintings of Angelica Kauffman, mainly a portraitist, are described equally having "an unctuous softness and tediousness" by Fritz Novotny.^[21] Rococo frivolity and Baroque movement had been stripped abroad but many artists struggled to put anything in their place, and in the absence of ancient examples for history painting, other than the Greek vases used by Flaxman, Raphael tended to exist used every bit a substitute model, every bit Winckelmann recommended.

The work of other artists, who could not hands be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a by and large Neoclassical style, and form part of the history of both movements. The German-Danish painter Asmus Jacob Carstens finished very few of the large mythological works that he planned, leaving mostly drawings and colour studies which often succeed in approaching Winckelmann's prescription of "noble simplicity and calm grandeur".^[22] Unlike Carstens' unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable, and taken back by those making the Thou Tour to all parts of Europe. His main field of study matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modernistic. The somewhat disquieting atmosphere of many of his Vedute (views) becomes dominant in his serial of 16 prints of Carceri d'Invenzione ("Imaginary Prisons") whose "oppressive cyclopean compages" conveys "dreams of fear and frustration".^[23] The Swiss-born Johann Heinrich Füssli spent most of his career in England, and while his fundamental style was based on Neoclassical principles, his subjects and treatment more often reflected the "Gothic" strain of Romanticism, and sought to evoke drama and excitement.

Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the sensational success of Jacques-Louis David's Adjuration of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal authorities, which David insisted on painting in Rome. David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. The cardinal perspective is perpendicular to the picture plane, made more emphatic by the dim arcade behind, against which the heroic figures are disposed every bit in a frieze, with a hint of the bogus lighting and staging of opera, and the classical colouring of Nicolas Poussin. David chop-chop became the leader of French art, and afterwards the French Revolution became a political leader with command of much government patronage in art. He managed to retain his influence in the Napoleonic flow, turning to frankly propagandistic works, but had to go out France for exile in Brussels at the Bourbon Restoration.^[24]

David'south many students included Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, who saw himself every bit a classicist throughout his long career, despite a mature style that has an equivocal relationship with the main current of Neoclassicism, and many later diversions into Orientalism and the Troubadour style that are hard to distinguish from those of his unabashedly Romantic contemporaries, except by the primacy his works ever give to drawing. He exhibited at the Salon for over 60 years, from 1802 into the beginnings of Impressionism, only his manner, once formed, changed little.^[25]

The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately ane hundred steps . . .; by Giovanni Battista Piranesi; circa 1750; etching; size of the entire sheet: 33.5 × 49.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art
Ancient Rome; by Giovanni Pauolo Panini; 1757; oil on canvas; 172.1 10 229.nine cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art
Aqueduct in Ruins; by Hubert Robert; 18th century; oil on canvas; 81.6 x 137.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art
The Triumph of Aemilius Paulus; past Carle Vernet; 1789; oil on canvas; height; 129.nine x 438.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art
eleven February 1866 - Mod Romania; past Gheorghe Tattarescu; 1866; oil on cardboard; 31.four x 24 cm; private collection

Sculpture [edit]

If Neoclassical painting suffered from a lack of ancient models, Neoclassical sculpture tended to endure from an excess of them, although examples of actual Greek sculpture of the "classical menstruum" beginning in about 500 BC were and so very few; the nearly highly regarded works were mostly Roman copies.^[26] The leading Neoclassical sculptors enjoyed huge reputations in their ain day, but are now less regarded, with the exception of Jean-Antoine Houdon, whose piece of work was mainly portraits, very often every bit busts, which practise non sacrifice a strong impression of the sitter'south personality to idealism. His fashion became more classical as his long career continued, and represents a rather smooth progression from Rococo charm to classical dignity. Dissimilar some Neoclassical sculptors he did not insist on his sitters wearing Roman dress, or existence unclothed. He portrayed about of the notable figures of the Enlightenment, and travelled to America to produce a statue of George Washington, likewise as busts of Thomas Jefferson, Ben Franklin and other founders of the new commonwealth.^[27] ^[28]

Antonio Canova and the Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen were both based in Rome, and besides every bit portraits produced many ambitious life-size figures and groups; both represented the strongly idealizing tendency in Neoclassical sculpture. Canova has a lightness and grace, where Thorvaldsen is more than severe; the difference is exemplified in their respective groups of the Three Graces.^[29] All these, and Flaxman, were withal active in the 1820s, and Romanticism was ho-hum to touch on sculpture, where versions of Neoclassicism remained the ascendant style for most of the 19th century.

An early Neoclassicist in sculpture was the Swede Johan Tobias Sergel.^[30] John Flaxman was also, or mainly, a sculptor, by and large producing severely classical reliefs that are comparable in style to his prints; he as well designed and modelled Neoclassical ceramics for Josiah Wedgwood for several years. Johann Gottfried Schadow and his son Rudolph, one of the few Neoclassical sculptors to die young, were the leading German artists,^[31] with Franz Anton von Zauner in Austria. The tardily Baroque Austrian sculptor Franz Xaver Messerschmidt turned to Neoclassicism in mid-career, before long earlier he appears to accept suffered some kind of mental crunch, after which he retired to the country and devoted himself to the highly distinctive "character heads" of bald figures pulling extreme facial expressions.^[32] Similar Piranesi'south Carceri, these enjoyed a corking revival of involvement during the age of psychoanalysis in the early 20th century. The Dutch Neoclassical sculptor Mathieu Kessels studied with Thorvaldsen and worked almost exclusively in Rome.

Since prior to the 1830s the United States did not accept a sculpture tradition of its own, relieve in the areas of tombstones, weathervanes and ship figureheads,^[33] the European Neoclassical fashion was adopted in that location, and it was to hold sway for decades and is exemplified in the sculptures of Horatio Greenough, Harriet Hosmer, Hiram Powers, Randolph Rogers and William Henry Rinehart.

Artemisia in mourning; by Philipp Jakob Scheffauer; 1794; marble; height: fifty.2 cm, width: 30 cm, depth: 5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Perseus with the caput of Medusa; by Antonio Canova; 1804–1806; marble; height: 242.vi cm, width: 191.8 cm, depth: 102.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Filatrice; past Henry Kirke Brown; 1850; bronze; 50.viii x 30.5 ten twenty.three cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Compages and the decorative arts [edit]

Neoclassical fine art was traditional and new, historical and modern, bourgeois and progressive all at the aforementioned time.^[35]

Neoclassicism first gained influence in England and France, through a generation of French art students trained in Rome and influenced by the writings of Winckelmann, and it was quickly adopted by progressive circles in other countries such equally Sweden, Poland and Russia. At kickoff, classicizing decor was grafted onto familiar European forms, every bit in the interiors for Catherine 2'due south lover, Count Orlov, designed by an Italian architect with a squad of Italian stuccadori: simply the isolated oval medallions like cameos and the bas-relief overdoors hint of Neoclassicism; the effects are fully Italian Rococo.

A second Neoclassic moving ridge, more than severe, more than studied (through the medium of engravings) and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire. In France, the first phase of Neoclassicism was expressed in the "Louis XVI manner", and the second in the styles called "Directoire" or Empire. The Rococo manner remained popular in Italy until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced equally a political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.^{[ according to whom? ]}

In the decorative arts, Neoclassicism is exemplified in Empire furniture fabricated in Paris, London, New York, Berlin; in Biedermeier furniture made in Austria; in Karl Friedrich Schinkel'due south museums in Berlin, Sir John Soane'due south Bank of England in London and the newly built "capitol" in Washington, D.C.; and in Wedgwood's bas reliefs and "black basaltes" vases. The way was international; Scots architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine 2 the Slap-up, in Russian St. Petersburg.

Indoors, Neoclassicism fabricated a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the belatedly 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s,^[36] with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of Le Antichità di Ercolano (The Antiquities of Herculaneum). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the Baroque, or the about "Roman" rooms of William Kent were based on basilica and temple exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes: pedimented window frames turned into aureate mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary.

Techniques employed in the fashion included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low frieze-like relief or painted in monotones en camaïeu ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques confronting backgrounds, perchance, of "Pompeiian scarlet" or pale tints, or stone colors. The way in France was initially a Parisian way, the Goût grec ("Greek way"), non a court style; when Louis 16 acceded to the throne in 1774, Marie Antoinette, his fashion-loving Queen, brought the "Louis 16" manner to courtroom. However, there was no real attempt to employ the bones forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more than likely to borrow from ancient architecture, merely as silversmiths were more likely to have from ancient pottery and rock-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen ... seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasance in transferring motifs from one medium to some other".^[37]

From most 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to Neoclassicism, the Greek Revival. At the same time the Empire fashion was a more grandiose wave of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of Napoleon in the Showtime French Empire, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon'southward leadership and the French land. The fashion corresponds to the more conservative Biedermeier style in the High german-speaking lands, Federal mode in the United States,^[36] the Regency style in Britain, and the Napoleon way in Sweden. According to the art historian Hugh Honour "and then far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neoclassical movement, the Empire marks its rapid pass up and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces".^[38] An before phase of the style was called the Adam fashion in Great Uk and "Louis Seize", or Louis XVI, in France.

Neoclassicism continued to be a major strength in academic art through the 19th century and beyond—a constant antonym to Romanticism or Gothic revivals —, although from the tardily 19th century on it had oftentimes been considered anti-modern, or even reactionary, in influential critical circles.^{[ who? ]} The centres of several European cities, notably St. petersburg and Munich, came to look much similar museums of Neoclassical architecture.

Gothic revival architecture (often linked with the Romantic cultural motion), a style originating in the 18th century which grew in popularity throughout the 19th century, contrasted Neoclassicism. Whilst Neoclassicism was characterized past Greek and Roman-influenced styles, geometric lines and club, Gothic revival architecture placed an emphasis on medieval-looking buildings, often made to have a rustic, "romantic" appearance.

France [edit]

Louis Xvi style (1760-1789) [edit]

It marks the transition from Rococo to Classicism. Unlike the Classicism of Louis 14, which transformed ornaments into symbols, Louis 16 style represents them as realistic and natural as possible, ie laurel branches really are laurel branches, roses the same, and so on. One of the principal decorative principles is symmetry. In interiors, the colours used are very vivid, including white, light gray, brilliant blue, pinkish, yellowish, very light lilac, and aureate. Excesses of ornamentation are avoided.^[40] The return to antiquity is synonymous with above all with a return to the straight lines: strict verticals and horizontals were the order of the day. Serpentine ones were no longer tolerated, save for the occasional one-half circle or oval. Interior decor as well honored this taste for rigor, with the consequence that flat surfaces and right angles returned to fashion. Decoration was used to mediate this severity, but information technology never interfered with bones lines and always was disposed symmetrically effectually a fundamental axis. Withal, ébénistes often canted fore-angles to avert excessive rigidity.^[41]

The decorative motifs of Louis Sixteen mode were inspired by antiquity, the Louis XIV style, and nature. Characteristic elements of the style: a torch crossed with a sheath with arrows, imbricated disks, guilloché, double bow-knots, smoking braziers, linear repetitions of small-scale motifs (rosettes, beads, oves), trophy or floral medallions hanging from a knotted ribbon, acanthus leaves, gadrooning, interlace, meanders, cornucopias, mascarons, Ancient urns, tripods, perfume burners, dolphins, ram and lion heads, chimeras, and gryphons. Greco-Roman architectural motifs are too very used: flutings, pilasters (fluted and unfluted), fluted balusters (twisted and straight), columns (engaged and unengaged, sometimes replaced by caryathids), volute corbels, triglyphs with guttae (in relief and trompe-l'œil).^[42]

Cardinal pavilion of the École Militaire (Paris), 1752, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel^[44]
Large vase; 1783; hard porcelain and gold bronze; height: two m, diameter: 0.xc m; Louvre
Roll-pinnacle desk-bound of Marie-Antoinette; by Jean-Henri Riesener; 1784; oak and pino frame, sycamore, amaranth and rosewood veneer, bronze aureate; 103.6 x 113.4 cm; Louvre^[51]
Writing table of Marie-Antoinette; by Adam Weisweiler; 1784; oak, ebony and sycamore veneer, Japanese lacquer, steel, bronze gilt; 73.7 x 81. 2 cm; Louvre^[52]
Ewer; 1784–1785; silverish; summit: 32.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Folding stool (pliant); 1786; carved and painted beechwood, covered in pink silk; 46.4 × 68.vi × 51.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Pair of vases; 1789; hard-paste porcelain, gilt bronze, marble; height (each): 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Armchair (fauteuil) from Louis XVI's Salon des Jeux at Saint Deject; 1788; carved and gold walnut, gold brocaded silk (non original); overall: 100 × 74.nine × 65.one cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Empire style (1804-1815) [edit]

It representative for the new French club that has exited from the revolution which set the tone in all life fields, including art. The Jacquard machine is invented during this menses (which revolutionises the entire sewing organisation, manual until then). I of the dominant colours is ruby-red, decorated with golden bronze. Bright colours are also used, including white, cream, violet, dark-brown, bleu, dark red, with little ornaments of aureate statuary. Interior architecture includes wood panels busy with gilded reliefs (on a white background or a coloured 1). Motifs are placed geometrically. The walls are covered in stuccos, wallpaper pr fabrics. Fireplace mantels are made of white marble, having caryatids at their corners, or other elements: obelisks, sphinxes, winged lions, and so on. Bronze objects were placed on their tops, including mantel clocks. The doors consist of simple rectangular panels, decorated with a Pompeian-inspired central effigy. Empire fabrics are damasks with a bleu or brown background, satins with a green, pinkish or purple background, velvets of the aforementioned colors, brooches broached with golden or argent, and cotton fiber fabrics. All of these were used in interiors for curtains, for covering certain furniture, for cushions or upholstery (leather is likewise used for upholstery).^[53]

All Empire decoration is governed by a rigorous spirit of symmetry reminiscent of the Louis Fourteen manner. Generally, the motifs on a piece'south right and left sides represent to one another in every detail; when they don't, the individual motifs themselves are entirely symmetrical in composition: antique heads with identical tresses falling onto each shoulder, frontal figures of Victory with symmetrically arrayed tunics, identical rosettes or swans flanking a lock plate, etc. Like Louis XIV, Napoleon had a set of emblems unmistakably associated with his rule, about notably the hawkeye, the bee, stars, and the initials I (for Imperator) and Due north (for Napoleon), which were usually inscribed inside an royal laurel crown. Motifs used include: figures of Victory bearing palm branches, Greek dancers, nude and draped women, figures of antique chariots, winged putti, mascarons of Apollo, Hermes and the Gorgon, swans, lions, the heads of oxen, horses and wild beasts, butterflies, claws, winged chimeras, sphinxes, bucrania, body of water horses, oak wreaths knotted by thin trailing ribbons, climbing grape vines, poppy rinceaux, rosettes, palm branches, and laurel. There's a lot of Greco-Roman ones: stiff and flat acanthus leaves, palmettes, cornucopias, beads, amphoras, tripods, imbricated disks, caduceuses of Mercury, vases, helmets, burning torches, winged trumpet players, and ancient musical instruments (tubas, rattles and peculiarly lyres). Despite their antiquarian derivation, the fluting and triglyphs so prevalent nether Louis XVI are abased. Egyptian Revival motifs are specially common at the outset of the catamenia: scarabs, lotus capitals, winged disks, obelisks, pyramids, figures wearing nemeses, caryatids en gaine supported by bare feet and with women Egyptian headdresses.^[54]

Washstand (athénienne or lavabo); 1800–1814; legs, base and shelf of yew forest, gilt-bronze mounts, iron plate beneath shelf; height: 92.iv cm, width: 49.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Desk chair (fauteuil de bureau); 1805–1808; mahogany, gilt bronze and satin-velvet upholstery; 87.6 × 59.7 × 64.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Clock with Mars and Venus; circa 1810; gilded statuary and patina; acme: xc cm; Louvre
Carpet; 1814–1830; 309.9 × 246.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Uk [edit]

Adam style [edit]

The Adam style was created past ii brothers, Adam and James, who published in 1777 a volume of etchings with interior ornamentation. In the interior ornamentation made after Robert Adam'due south drawings, the walls, ceilings, doors, and whatsoever other surface, are divided into big panels: rectangular, round, square, with stuccos and Greco-Roman motifs at the edges. Ornaments used include festoons, pearls, egg-and-sprint bands, medallions, and any other motifs used during the Classical antiquity (especially the Etruscan ones). Decorative fittings such equally urn-shaped stone vases, gilded silverware, lamps, and stauettes all have the same source of inspiration, classical antiquity.

The Adam fashion emphasizes refined rectangular mirrors, framed like paintings (in frames with stylised leafs), or with a pediment above them, supporting an urn or a medallion. Another design of Adam mirrors is shaped like a Venetian window, with a large central mirror between two other thinner and longer ones. Another type of mirrors are the oval ones, usually decorated with festoons. The furniture in this style has a similar structure to Louis XVI furniture.^[58]

Rectangular mirror with a small urn at the top; by Robert Adam; 1765; carved and painted pine and glass; overall: 355.6 × 190.five cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art (New York Urban center)
The Hall (Osterley Park), 1767, by Robert Adam^[61]
Carpet; by Robert Adam; 1770–1780; knotted wool; 505.v x 473.one cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Urn on pedestal; circa 1780 with latter additions; by Robert Adam; inlaid mahogany; height: 49.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art
Side tabular array with many acanthus leafs and two bucrania; past Robert Adam; circa 1780 with afterwards addition; mahogany; overall: 88.half-dozen × 141.3 × 57.ane cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

The United States [edit]

Federal style [edit]

On the American continent, architecture and interior decoration accept been highly influenced by the styles developed in Europe. The French gustation has highly marked its presence in the southern states (after the French Revolution some emigrants have moved here, and in Canada a large office of the population has French origins). The practical spirit and the material situation of the Americans at that time gave the interiors a typic atmosphere. All the American furniture, carpets, tableware, ceramic, and silverware, with all the European influences, and sometimes Islamic, Turkish or Asian, were made in conformity with the American norms, taste, and functional requirements. There take existed in the US a period of the Queen Anne mode, and an Chippendale ane. A fashion of its own, the Federal style, has developed completely in the 18th and early 19th centuries, which has flourished being influenced by Britannic taste. Nether the impulse of Neoclassicism, architecture, interiors, and furniture take been created. The style, although it has numerous characteristics which differ from country to land, is unitary. The structures of compages, interiors, and furniture are Classicist, and incorporate Baroque and Rococo influences. The shapes used include rectangles, ovals, and crescents. Stucco or wooden panels on walls and ceilings reproduce Classicist motifs. Piece of furniture tend to exist busy with floral marquetry and statuary or brass inlays (sometimes aureate).^[62]

Candlestand; 1790-1800; mahogany, birch, and various inlays; 107 ten 49.21 ten 48.ix cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Writing desk; 1790-1810; satinwood, mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine; 153.67 10 90.17 10 51.44 cm; Los Angeles Canton Museum of Art
Armchair; possibly by Ephraim Haines; 1805-1815; mahogany and cane; height: 84.77 cm, width: 52.07 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Four-column pedestal card table with pineapple finial; 1815-1820; mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine forest; 74.93 x 92.71 ten 46.67 cm; Los Angeles Canton Museum of Fine art

Gardens [edit]

In England, Augustan literature had a direct parallel with the Augustan style of landscape pattern. The links are clearly seen in the work of Alexander Pope. The best surviving examples of Neoclassical English language gardens are Chiswick House, Stowe Business firm and Stourhead.^[63]

Neoclassicism and style [edit]

In fashion, Neoclassicism influenced the much greater simplicity of women's dresses, and the long-lasting manner for white, from well earlier the French Revolution, but information technology was non until afterwards it that thorough-going attempts to imitate ancient styles became fashionable in France, at least for women. Classical costumes had long been worn by fashionable ladies posing as some effigy from Greek or Roman myth in a portrait (in detail at that place was a rash of such portraits of the young model Emma, Lady Hamilton from the 1780s), but such costumes were only worn for the portrait sitting and masquerade balls until the Revolutionary period, and perhaps, like other exotic styles, as undress at dwelling. Merely the styles worn in portraits by Juliette Récamier, Joséphine de Beauharnais, Thérésa Tallien and other Parisian tendency-setters were for going-out in public as well. Seeing Mme Tallien at the opera, Talleyrand quipped that: "Il northward'est pas possible de s'exposer plus somptueusement!" ("One could not be more than sumptuously undressed"). In 1788, just before the Revolution, the court portraitist Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun had held a Greek supper where the ladies wore manifestly white Grecian tunics.^[64] Shorter classical hairstyles, where possible with curls, were less controversial and very widely adopted, and hair was now uncovered fifty-fifty outdoors; except for evening dress, bonnets or other coverings had typically been worn even indoors before. Thin Greek-style ribbons or fillets were used to tie or decorate the pilus instead.

Very low-cal and loose dresses, usually white and often with shockingly blank arms, rose sheer from the ankle to simply below the bodice, where at that place was a strongly emphasized thin hem or tie circular the body, often in a different colour. The shape is now often known as the Empire silhouette although it predates the Starting time French Empire of Napoleon, but his first Empress Joséphine de Beauharnais was influential in spreading it effectually Europe. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, very often plain ruddy only with a busy border in portraits, helped in colder weather, and was apparently laid around the midriff when seated—for which sprawling semi-recumbent postures were favoured.^[65] Past the showtime of the 19th century, such styles had spread widely beyond Europe.

Neoclassical fashion for men was far more problematic, and never actually took off other than for hair, where it played an of import role in the shorter styles that finally despatched the utilise of wigs, then white hair-powder, for younger men. The trouser had been the symbol of the barbarian to the Greeks and Romans, but exterior the painter's or, especially, the sculptor's studio, few men were prepared to carelessness information technology. Indeed, the menstruation saw the triumph of the pure trouser, or pantaloon, over the culotte or knee-breeches of the Ancien Régime. Even when David designed a new French "national costume" at the asking of the authorities during the height of the Revolutionary enthusiasm for changing everything in 1792, it included adequately tight leggings under a coat that stopped higher up the knee. A loftier proportion of well-to-do young men spent much of the central flow in armed forces service because of the French Revolutionary Wars, and armed forces compatible, which began to emphasize jackets that were short at the front, giving a total view of tight-fitting trousers, was often worn when not on duty, and influenced civilian male styles.

The trouser-trouble had been recognised past artists equally a barrier to creating contemporary history paintings; similar other elements of contemporary dress they were seen as irredeemably ugly and unheroic by many artists and critics. Diverse stratagems were used to avoid depicting them in modern scenes. In James Dawkins and Robert Woods Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758) by Gavin Hamilton, the two gentleman antiquaries are shown in toga-like Arab robes. In Watson and the Shark (1778) by John Singleton Copley, the principal figure could plausibly be shown nude, and the composition is such that of the 8 other men shown, only ane shows a single breeched leg prominently. However the Americans Copley and Benjamin Westward led the artists who successfully showed that trousers could be used in heroic scenes, with works similar West's The Death of General Wolfe (1770) and Copley's The Death of Major Peirson, 6 January 1781 (1783), although the trouser was still beingness carefully avoided in The Raft of the Medusa, completed in 1819.

Classically inspired male hair styles included the Bedford Crop, arguably the precursor of most plain mod male styles, which was invented by the radical politician Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford as a protest against a tax on hair pulverization; he encouraged his friends to adopt it by betting them they would non. Another influential way (or grouping of styles) was named past the French "à la Titus" after Titus Junius Brutus (not in fact the Roman Emperor Titus as often assumed), with pilus short and layered but somewhat piled upwards on the crown, ofttimes with restrained quiffs or locks hanging downwardly; variants are familiar from the hair of both Napoleon and George Four of the United Kingdom. The style was supposed to have been introduced by the player François-Joseph Talma, who upstaged his wigged co-actors when actualization in productions of works such as Voltaire's Brutus (about Lucius Junius Brutus, who orders the execution of his son Titus). In 1799 a Parisian fashion magazine reported that even baldheaded men were adopting Titus wigs,^[66] and the style was as well worn by women, the Journal de Paris reporting in 1802 that "more than one-half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wig à la Titus.^[67]

Afterwards Neoclassicism [edit]

In American compages, Neoclassicism was one expression of the American Renaissance movement, ca. 1890–1917; its last manifestation was in Beaux-Arts architecture, and its last large public projects were the Lincoln Memorial (highly criticized at the time), the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. (also heavily criticized by the architectural community equally being backward thinking and onetime fashioned in its design), and the American Museum of Natural History'south Roosevelt Memorial. These were considered stylistic anachronisms when they were finished. In the British Raj, Sir Edwin Lutyens' monumental city planning for New Delhi marks the sunset of Neoclassicism. Earth State of war II was to shatter most longing for (and imitation of) a mythical fourth dimension.

Conservative modernist architects such as Auguste Perret in France kept the rhythms and spacing of columnar architecture even in manufactory buildings. Where a colonnade would have been decried as "reactionary", a building's pilaster-like fluted panels nether a repeating frieze looked "progressive". Pablo Picasso experimented with classicizing motifs in the years immediately following Earth War I, and the Art Deco mode that came to the fore following the 1925 Paris Exposition des Arts Décoratifs, often drew on Neoclassical motifs without expressing them overtly: severe, blocky commodes past É.-J. Ruhlmann or Süe & Mare; crisp, extremely low-relief friezes of damsels and gazelles in every medium; stylish dresses that were draped or cutting on the bias to recreate Grecian lines; the art trip the light fantastic of Isadora Duncan; the Streamline Moderne styling of U.S. post offices and county courtroom buildings built every bit late as 1950; and the Roosevelt dime.

There was an unabridged 20th-century movement in the Arts which was besides chosen Neoclassicism. It encompassed at least music, philosophy and literature. It was betwixt the cease of World War I and the end of World State of war II. (For information on the musical aspects, see 20th-century classical music and Neoclassicism in music. For information on the philosophical aspects, run across Not bad Books.)

This literary Neoclassical move rejected the extreme romanticism of (for instance) Dada, in favour of restraint, religion (specifically Christianity) and a reactionary political program. Although the foundations for this movement in English literature were laid by T. E. Hulme, the most famous Neoclassicists were T. S. Eliot and Wyndham Lewis. In Russia, the motion crystallized as early on as 1910 under the proper name of Acmeism, with Anna Akhmatova and Osip Mandelshtam equally the leading representatives.

In music [edit]

Neoclassicism in music is a 20th-century motion; in this instance it is the Classical and Baroque musical styles of the 17th and 18th centuries, with their fondness for Greek and Roman themes, that were being revived, not the music of the aboriginal world itself. (The early 20th century had not yet distinguished the Baroque period in music, on which Neoclassical composers mainly drew, from what nosotros now call the Classical menstruum.) The movement was a reaction in the starting time part of the 20th century to the disintegrating chromaticism of late-Romanticism and Impressionism, emerging in parallel with musical Modernism, which sought to abandon key tonality altogether. It manifested a desire for cleanness and simplicity of style, which immune for quite dissonant paraphrasing of classical procedures, simply sought to blow abroad the cobwebs of Romanticism and the twilit glimmerings of Impressionism in favour of bold rhythms, assertive harmony and groomed sectional forms, coinciding with the vogue for reconstructed "classical" dancing and costume in ballet and physical pedagogy.

The 17th-18th century trip the light fantastic toe suite had had a minor revival before Globe War I only the Neoclassicists were not altogether happy with unmodified diatonicism, and tended to emphasise the bright dissonance of suspensions and ornaments, the angular qualities of 17th-century modal harmony and the energetic lines of countrapuntal office-writing. Respighi'due south Aboriginal Airs and Dances (1917) led the way for the sort of sound to which the Neoclassicists aspired. Although the practice of borrowing musical styles from the by has not been uncommon throughout musical history, fine art musics have gone through periods where musicians used modern techniques coupled with older forms or harmonies to create new kinds of works. Notable compositional characteristics are: referencing diatonic tonality, conventional forms (dance suites, concerti grossi, sonata forms, etc.), the idea of absolute music untramelled by descriptive or emotive associations, the utilize of light musical textures, and a conciseness of musical expression. In classical music, this was virtually notably perceived betwixt the 1920s and the 1950s. Igor Stravinsky is the best-known composer using this style; he finer began the musical revolution with his Bach-like Octet for Wind Instruments (1923). A particular individual piece of work that represents this style well is Prokofiev's Classical Symphony No. 1 in D, which is reminiscent of the symphonic style of Haydn or Mozart. Neoclassical ballet as innovated past George Balanchine de-cluttered the Russian Imperial mode in terms of costume, steps and narrative, while also introducing technical innovations.

Compages in Russia and the Soviet Union [edit]

In 1905–1914 Russian architecture passed through a brief merely influential menses of Neoclassical revival; the trend began with recreation of Empire style of alexandrine period and quickly expanded into a variety of neo-Renaissance, Palladian and modernized, notwithstanding recognizably classical schools. They were led by architects born in the 1870s, who reached creative peak before World War I, like Ivan Fomin, Vladimir Shchuko and Ivan Zholtovsky. When economy recovered in the 1920s, these architects and their followers continued working in primarily modernist environment; some (Zholtovsky) strictly followed the classical catechism, others (Fomin, Schuko, Ilya Golosov) adult their own modernized styles.^[68]

With the crackdown on architects independence and official denial of modernism (1932), demonstrated past the international competition for the Palace of Soviets, Neoclassicism was instantly promoted as ane of the choices in Stalinist compages, although not the only choice. It coexisted with moderately modernist architecture of Boris Iofan, bordering with contemporary Art Deco (Schuko); again, the purest examples of the fashion were produced by Zholtovsky schoolhouse that remained an isolated phenomena. The political intervention was a disaster for constructivist leaders nevertheless was sincerely welcomed by architects of the classical schools.

Neoclassicism was an easy choice for the USSR since information technology did not rely on modernistic construction technologies (steel frame or reinforced concrete) and could exist reproduced in traditional masonry. Thus the designs of Zholtovsky, Fomin and other erstwhile masters were easily replicated in remote towns under strict cloth rationing. Improvement of construction engineering later on Globe War Two permitted Stalinist architects to venture into skyscraper construction, although stylistically these skyscrapers (including "exported" architecture of Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw and the Shanghai International Convention Centre) share little with the classical models. Neoclassicism and neo-Renaissance persisted in less demanding residential and function projects until 1955, when Nikita Khrushchev put an end to expensive Stalinist architecture.

Compages in the 21st century [edit]

After a lull during the period of modern architectural say-so (roughly postal service-Earth War Two until the mid-1980s), Neoclassicism has seen something of a resurgence.

Every bit of the first decade of the 21st century, contemporary Neoclassical compages is commonly classed under the umbrella term of New Classical Architecture. Sometimes it is also referred to every bit Neo-Historicism or Traditionalism.^[69] Also, a number of pieces of postmodern architecture draw inspiration from and include explicit references to Neoclassicism, Antigone District and the National Theatre of Catalonia in Barcelona among them. Postmodern architecture occasionally includes historical elements, like columns, capitals or the tympanum.

For sincere traditional-style architecture that sticks to regional compages, materials and adroitness, the term Traditional Architecture (or vernacular) is by and large used. The Driehaus Compages Prize is awarded to major contributors in the field of 21st century traditional or classical architecture, and comes with a prize money twice as high every bit that of the modernist Pritzker Prize.^[seventy]

In the United States, diverse contemporary public buildings are built in Neoclassical manner, with the 2006 Schermerhorn Symphony Center in Nashville being an example.

In Britain, a number of architects are agile in the Neoclassical fashion. Examples of their piece of work include ii academy libraries: Quinlan Terry'south Maitland Robinson Library at Downing College and Robert Adam Architects' Sackler Library.

Notes [edit]

^ "Etymology of the English language word "neo-classical"". myetymology.com. Retrieved 2016-05-09 .
^ Stevenson, Angus (2010-08-nineteen). Oxford Lexicon of English. ISBN9780199571123.
^ Kohle, Hubertus (August 7, 2006). "The road from Rome to Paris. The nascence of a modern Neoclassicism". Jacques Louis David. New perspectives.
^ Irwin, David Yard. (1997). Neoclassicism A&I (Art and Ideas) . Phaidon Press. ISBN978-0-7148-3369-ix.
^ Award, 17-25; Novotny, 21
^ A recurring theme in Clark: nineteen-23, 58-62, 69, 97-98 (on Ingres); Honor, 187-190; Novotny, 86-87
^ Lingo, Estelle Cecile (2007). François Duquesnoy and the Greek ideal. Yale University Press; First Edition. pp. 161. ISBN978-0-300-12483-5.
^ Talbott, Folio (1995). Classical Savannah: fine & decorative arts, 1800-1840. University of Georgia Press. p. half-dozen. ISBN978-0-8203-1793-9.
^ Cunningham, Reich, Lawrence S., John J. (2009). Culture and values: a survey of the humanities. Wadsworth Publishing; 7 edition. p. 104. ISBN978-0-495-56877-3.
^ Honour, 57-62, 61 quoted
^ Both quotes from the starting time pages of "Thoughts on the Simulated of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture"
^ Dyson, Stephen Fifty. (2006). In Pursuit of Aboriginal Pasts: A History of Classical Archaeology in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Yale University Press. pp. xii. ISBN978-0-300-11097-5.
^ Laurels, 21
^ Honour, 11, 23-25
^ Award, 44-46; Novotny, 21
^ Honour, 43-62
^ Clark, 20 (quoted); Honour, fourteen; image of the painting (in fairness, other works by Mengs are more successful)
^ Accolade, 31-32 (31 quoted)
^ Honour, 113-114
^ Honour, 14
^ Novotny, 62
^ Novotny, 51-54
^ Clark, 45-58 (47-48 quoted); Award, 50-57
^ Honour, 34-37; Clark, 21-26; Novotny, 19-22
^ Novotny, 39-47; Clark, 97-145; Award, 187-190
^ Novotny, 378
^ Novotny, 378–379
^ Chinard, Gilbert, ed., Houdon in America Arno PressNy, 1979, a reprint of a book published past Johns Hopkins Academy, 1930
^ Novotny, 379-384
^ Novotny, 384-385
^ Novotny, 388-389
^ Novotny, 390-392
^ Gerdts, William H., American Neo-Classic Sculpture: The Marble Resurrection, Viking Printing, New York, 1973 p. 11
^ ART ● Architecture ● Painting ● Sculpture ● Graphics ● Design. 2011. p. 313. ISBN978-i-4454-5585-3.
^ Palmer, Alisson Lee. Historical dictionary of neoclassical art and compages. p. ane.
^ ^a ^b Gontar
^ Laurels, 110–111, 110 quoted
^ Honour, 171–184, 171 quoted
^ Jones 2014, p. 273.
^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 200, 201 & 202.
^ Sylvie, Chadenet (2001). French Piece of furniture • From Louis XIII to Fine art Deco. Fiddling, Brown and Company. p. 71.
^ Sylvie, Chadenet (2001). French Furniture • From Louis Thirteen to Art Deco. Trivial, Brown and Visitor. p. 72.
^ de Martin 1925, p. ix.
^ de Martin 1925, p. xi.
^ Jones 2014, p. 276.
^ de Martin 1925, p. 13.
^ Jacquemart, Albert (2012). Decorative Art. Parkstone. p. 65. ISBN978-1-84484-899-7.
^ de Martin 1925, p. 17.
^ "Corner Cabinet - The Art Institute of Chicago".
^ de Martin 1925, p. 61.
^ Jacquemart, Albert (2012). Decorative Fine art. Parkstone. p. 61. ISBN978-one-84484-899-7.
^ Jacquemart, Albert (2012). Decorative Art. Parkstone. p. 61. ISBN978-1-84484-899-7.
^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 217, 219, 220 & 221.
^ Sylvie, Chadenet (2001). French Furniture • From Louis Thirteen to Art Deco. Little, Brown and Company. p. 103 & 105.
^ Jones 2014, p. 275.
^ ^a ^b Hopkins 2014, p. 111.
^ Odile, Nouvel-Kammerer (2007). Symbols of Power • Napoleon and the Fine art of the Empire Style • 1800-1815. p. 209. ISBN978-0-8109-9345-7.
^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 253, 255 & 256.
^ ^a ^b Hopkins 2014, p. 103.
^ Bailey 2012, pp. 226. sfn mistake: no target: CITEREFBailey2012 (assistance)
^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 274.
^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 269, 270, & 271.
^ Turner, Turner (2013). British gardens: history, philosophy and design, Chapter half-dozen Neoclassical gardens and landscapes 1730-1800. London: Routledge. p. 456. ISBN978-0415518789.
^ Chase, 244
^ Hunt, 244-245
^ Chase, 243
^ Rifelj, 35
^ "The Origins of Modernism in Russian Architecture". Content.cdlib.org. Retrieved 2012-02-12 .
^ "Neo-classicist Architecture. Traditionalism. Historicism".
^ Driehaus Prize for New Classical Compages at Notre Dame SoA – Together, the $200,000 Driehaus Prize and the $50,000 Reed Award represent the most significant recognition for classicism in the gimmicky built environment.; retained March 7, 2014

References [edit]

Clark, Kenneth, The Romantic Rebellion: Romantic versus Archetype Art, 1976, Omega. ISBN 0-86007-718-7.
de Martin, Henry (1925). Le Fashion Louis Xvi (in French). Flammarion.
Fortenberry, Diane (2017). The Art Museum (Revised ed.). London: Phaidon Press. ISBN978-0-7148-7502-6. Archived from the original on 2021-04-23. Retrieved 2021-04-23 .
Gontar, Cybele (2000–). "Neoclassicism". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art.
Hopkins, Owen (2014). Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide. Laurence King. ISBN978-178067-163-5.
Honour, Hugh (1968). Neo-classicism. Manner and Civilisation. Penguin. . Reprinted 1977.
Hunt, Lynn (1998). "Freedom of Clothes in Revolutionary France". In Melzer, Sara Eastward.; Norberg, Kathryn (eds.). From the Imperial to the Republican Trunk: Incorporating the Political in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century France. University of California Press. ISBN9780520208070.
Jones, Denna, ed. (2014). Architecture The Whole Story. Thames & Hudson. ISBN978-0-500-29148-1.
Novotny, Fritz. Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780–1880 (2nd (reprinted 1980) ed.).
Rifelj, Ballad De Dobay (2010). Coiffures: Pilus in Nineteenth-Century French Literature and Civilisation. University of Delaware Printing. ISBN9780874130997.

Farther reading [edit]

Brown, Kevin (2017). Artist and Patrons: Court Fine art and Revolution in Brussels at the end of the Ancien Regime, Dutch Crossing, Taylor and Francis
Eriksen, Svend. Early on Neoclassicism in French republic (1974)
Friedlaender, Walter (1952). David to Delacroix (originally published in German language; reprinted 1980)
Gromort, Georges, with introductory essay by Richard Sammons (2001). The Elements of Classical Architecture (Classical America Series in Art and Architecture)
Harrison, Charles; Paul Wood and Jason Gaiger (eds) (2000; repr. 2003). Art in Theory 1648–1815: An Anthology of Changing Ideas
Hartop, Christopher, with foreword past Tim Knox (2010). The Classical Ideal: English Silver, 1760–1840, exh. cat. Cambridge: John Adamson ISBN 978-0-9524322-9-6
Irwin, David (1966). English Neoclassical Art: Studies in Inspiration and Gustatory modality
Johnson, James William. "What Was Neo-Classicism?" Journal of British Studies, vol. 9, no. 1, 1969, pp. 49–seventy. online
Rosenblum, Robert (1967). Transformations in Belatedly Eighteenth-Century Art

External links [edit]

Neoclassicism in the "History of Art"
"Neoclassicism Mode Guide". British Galleries. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2007-07-17 .
Neo-classical drawings in the Flemish Art Collection
19th Century Sculpture Derived From Greek Hellenistic Influence: Jacob Ungerer
The Neoclassicising of Pompeii

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassicism